Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Orthopaedics Abstract Background: Hamstring injuries frequently occur in sports involving ex...

A Pilot Study Re Behavioral Root of Cultural-Historical Development: A Neo-Darwinian Stance| Lupine Publishers

Journal of Neurology & Neurosurgery-Lupine Publishers

Abstract

Go to

Introduction: No doubt, evolutionary psychologists are trying to enlighten personality and individual differences by way of various theories. But, essentially and from an evolutionary point of view, a few studies exist regarding personality characters. In the present assessment, relationship between obsessive-compulsive personality traits and achievement of people had been assessed.

Method and Material: Four hundreds relatives, who had been elected randomly, have been questioned by means of a self-reply inquiry form as regards the existence of obsessive-compulsive personality traits, in their highest and lowest successful offspring. Data were analyzed by z test for comparison of proportions.

Results: Except for ‘stubbornness’, all of traits were meaningfully more prevalent among the highest successful kids, in comparison with the lowest successful children. “Perfectionism’ was the most prevalent character among successful group, tagged along by ‘Rigidity regarding Morality and ethics’, ‘Orderliness and devoting to details’ and ‘Devoting to work and avoiding Leisure’. ‘Obligating others to submit his or her style of behavior’, ‘collecting objects and money’ and ‘parsimoniousness’, were the least prevalent qualities.

Conclusion: Obsessive-compulsive traits, at a sensible level, seem to be one of the main interactive dynamics that may help people with regard to achievement of personal and social triumphs.

Keywords: Obsessive-compulsive personality trait; Evolutionary psychology; Evolutionary psychiatry

Introduction

Go to

According to DSM-5, ‘obsessive-compulsive personality disorder’ is one of the most prevalent personality syndromes in the population, with likely frequency ranging from 2.1% to 7.9% [1]. In systematic studies, ‘obsessive-compulsive personality disorder’ appears to be diagnosed about twice as often among men. The necessary feature of ‘obsessive-compulsive personality disorder’ is perfectionism, preoccupation with orderliness, and mental and interpersonal control, at the expense of openness, flexibility and productivity. This configuration begins by early adulthood and is existent in a variety of circumstances. Personalities with such kind of disorder attempt to maintain a sense of control through painstaking attention to rules, procedures, lists, trivial details, or schedules to the extent that the main point of the activity is missing (Criterion 1) [1]. They are disproportionately watchful and susceptible to repetition, paying unusual attention to detail and repeatedly checking for possible faults. They may become so involved in making every detail of a project completely perfect that the mission is never ended (Criterion 2) [1]. Such individuals show extreme devoutness to work and productivity to the exclusion of leisureliness and friendships (Criterion 3) [1].

When they do take time for vacations or holidays, they are very uncomfortable unless they have taken along something to work on, so they do not ‘waste time.’ The emphasis is on faultless enactment. They may be extremely conscientious, trustworthy, and inflexible about matters of ethics, moral code, or principles (Criterion 4) [1]. They may also be unpityingly self-critical about their own faults or slips. Persons with this syndrome are rigidly respectful to authority and instructions and insist on quite precise obedience, with no rule bending for moderating situations. The aforesaid qualities should not be accounted for by the individual’s religious or cultural credentials. Personalities with this disorder may be unable to throw away worn-out or useless stuffs, even when they have no emotional value (Criterion 5). They are unwilling to delegate tasks or to work with others (Criterion 6) [1]. Also, such persons may be parsimonious and ungenerous and maintain a standard of living far below what they can pay for, considering that expenditure must be tightly controlled to provide for future misfortunes (Criterion 7) [1]. This disorder is characterized by rigidity and stubbornness (Criterion 8) and unwilling to consider changes.

They may be preoccupied with rationality and intelligence, and intolerant of sentimental behavior in others. They often have difficulty conveying affectionate feelings, rarely paying compliments. Many of the features of this disorder is similar to “type A” personality characteristics (e.g., preoccupation with work, competitiveness and time urgency), and these features may be present in people at risk for myocardial infarction [1]. For over 80 years, astute clinical observers, including the eminent British psychiatrist Aubrey Lewis, have described two types of obsessive– compulsive personality [2]. Lewis noted, ‘one [was] obstinate, morose, irritable, the other vacillating, uncertain of himself, submissive’ [2]. Features of the second type were included in DSMIII, with the addition of ‘indecisiveness’ and ‘restricted expression of affection’ [3]. These features were retained in DSM-III-R but dropped in DSM-IV. ‘Indecisiveness’ seems to have been dropped for the reason that some studies revealed low sensitivity and specificity, and it was comparatively common in patients with other personality disorders including ‘paranoid’, ‘schizotypal’, ‘avoidant’ and ‘dependent’ [4].

However, an evaluation using stepwise logistic regression modeling found only modest support for this verdict [5]. The cause of OCPD is thought to encompass a combination of genetic and environmental factors [6]. Under the genetic theory, people with a form of the DRD3 gene will probably develop OCPD and depression, principally if they are male [7]. But genetic concomitants may lie latent until activated by happenings in the lives of those who are liable to OCPD. These events could consist of parenting styles that are over-involved and/or excessively protecting, as well as trauma faced during babyhood. Traumas that could lead to OCPD include emotional, physical or sexual abuse, or other psychological traumas. Under the environmental philosophy, OCPD is a learned behavior [7]. Also, little is known about the etiologic connection between obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms and traits of OCPD [8]. Some theoreticians have proposed that OCPD is one of several disorders falling within an OC spectrum. This infers that OC personality traits and symptoms should have etiologic dynamics in common, and this should not be merely because symptoms and traits are both shaped by general etiological effects. So, to investigate these issues, in a study a community sample of 307 pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic adult twins provided scores on six types of OC-related symptoms, two markers of negative emotionality, and a measure of OC personality traits.

In the end, OC symptoms and traits were etiologically related, mostly because they are shaped by the same general genetic factor that influenced negative emotionality [8]. Presently, no single specific cause of OCPD has been identified. Since the early days of Freudian psychoanalysis, however, faulty parenting has been viewed as a major factor in the development of personality disorders. Current studies have tended to support the importance of early life experiences, finding that healthy emotional development largely depends on two important variables: parental warmth and appropriate responsiveness to the child’s needs [9]. When these qualities are present, the child feels secure and appropriately valued. By contrast, many people with personality disorders did not have parents who were emotionally warm toward them. Patients with OCPD often recall their parents as being emotionally withholding and either over-protective or over-controlling. One researcher has noted that people with OCPD appear to have been punished by their parents for every transgression of a rule, no matter how minor, and rewarded for almost nothing. As a result, the child is unable to safely develop or express a sense of joy, spontaneity, or independent thought, and begins to develop the symptoms of OCPD as a strategy for avoiding punishment.

Children with this type of upbringing are also likely to choke down the anger they feel toward their parents; they may be outwardly obedient and polite to authority figures, but at the same time treat younger children or those they regard as their inferiors harshly. While genetic contributions to OCPD have not been yet well documented, cultural influences may, however, play a part in the development of OCPD [10]. That is, cultures that are highly controlling and rule-bound may encourage child-rearing rehearses that contribute to the development of OCPD. On the other hand, simply because a culture is comparatively strict or has a strong work ethic does not mean it is necessarily detrimental. In Japanese societies, for example, excessive devotion to work, restricted emotional expression, and ethical scrupulosity are highly valued features that are rewarded within that culture. So, OCPD is not diagnosed in persons who are simply behaving in accordance with cultural or exterior expectations. Nevertheless, in spite of all the aforementioned statements, and from an evolutionary or sociobiological standpoint in the realm of social Darwinism, amongst a variety of personality characters, obsessive-compulsive traits generally seem to be suitable for assuring human achievement.

Having faith in orderliness and concern with details, devoting to work, perfectionism, parsimoniousness, conscientiousness, putting force on others for obeying them and insisting on well-organized decisions, all are in contrast with the chaotic life style of borderline persons, exploitative style of narcissistic individuals, social disregard of sociopaths, guardedness of paranoid people , social avoidance of schizoid and schizotypal persons, isolation of avoidant individuals, passivity of dependent people, and attention seeking efforts of histrionic persons. On the other hand, while evolutionary psychologists agree that evolution is pertinent to all psychological mechanisms, and different theories are trying to explain personality variances and individual alterations, in comparison with other related fields, there has been very little investigation done on personality from an evolutionary perspective. So, for evaluation of such a conjecture, a pilot appraisal had been accomplished to measure that: is there basically any apparent affiliation between obsessive-compulsive traits and social progression of persons?

Method and Material

Go to

Four hundreds relatives, who have been elected randomly among normal patrons of a general hospital, during a six months period, have been questioned with reference to the existence of obsessive-compulsive personality characters, in their highest and lowest successful children, based on the inclusion criteria of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition [1]. In this regard, success was demarcated approximately as the “greatest attainable accomplishment” in personal, social, occupational and educational aspects of life, according to ‘their own values and standpoints’. Fathers, mothers or both had been asked by a self-reply inquiry form, which involved the complete obsessive-compulsive traits, itemized with distinct checkmark columns, for their highest and lowest successful children. Moreover, it had been highlighted for responders that such characterization of “success” could only be admissible, when there was no any exterior or unavoidable factor accountable for the triumph or defeat. The families with fewer than two children or youngsters less than fourteen years old were omitted from the assessment. If there were more than two children beyond fourteen years old, the parents were requested to pick among them the highest and lowest successful ones, based on their own judgment and individual sociocultural principles.

Statistical Analysis

Go to

While data were analyzed by z test for comparison of proportions, significance was demarcated as a p value equal to or less than 0.05. MedCalc Statistical Software version 15.2 was used as statistical software instrument for analysis.

Results

Go to

Demographic features of the participants have been shown in Table 1. Eight hundreds offspring, including 393 male and 403 female children, had been probed in the present assessment (z = -0.70, p < 0.48, 95%CI = -0.06, 0.03) (Figure 1). In this regard, z test for ‘comparison of proportions’ did not display any gender-based significance between highest (z = 0.56, p< =0.57, CI 95%=- 0.04, 0.08) and lowest successful offspring (z = -1.55, p< 0.11, CI 95& = - 0.12, 0.01). In keeping with the conclusions, and in comparison, with the lowest successful children, all of the obsessive-compulsive traits, except than ‘stubbornness’, were meaningfully more prevalent among the highest successful kids (Table 2) and (Figure 2). ‘Perfectionism’ was the most prevalent peculiarity among successful group of children, followed by ‘Rigidity regarding morality and ethics’, ‘Orderliness and devoting to details’ and ‘Devoting to work and avoiding leisure’. By the way, ‘Obligating others to submit his or her style of behavior’,’ Collecting objects and money’ and finally ‘Parsimoniousness’, too, were the least widespread characters.

Discussion

Go to

Over the last years, an increasing number of studies have revealed individual variances in a specific behavioral feature over time, between the same manners across different environmental conditions, or relations between different behavioral characters. While such investigations are indispensable for providing the material that will help us to generalize the existence of behavioral or personality patterns across the world, they are limited by their descriptive nature, and it is essential to transfer from this descriptive phase of personality studies to the experimental study of the ecological relevance and fitness consequences of personality variances [11,12]. In this regard, Reichborn-Kjennerud et al. [13] has recommended against grouping obsessive personality within the anxious and fearful cluster C of personality disorders, for the reason that it is much more heritable and distinct from both the avoidant and dependent personalities. As Reichborn-Kjennerud et al. [13] had stated, obsessive personality is truly ‘genotypically’ and ‘phenotypically’ distinct from its two counterparts, because the avoidant personality and the dependent personality are ‘related to the … higher-order factor’ of emotional dysregulation, while the obsessive personality is related to ‘the lower-order trait of compulsivity’.

While nearly all etiologies assume OCPD to be an environmentally instilled syndrome, a recent evolutionary etiology, better accounting for prevalence rates and heritability estimates, ecologically explains obsessive psychology as an adaptation to northern climates with express seasonality, low population density, and low social complexity. So, the concept of ‘phylogenetic inertia’, the decrease in fitness arising from incongruity between past and present selective pressures, is applied by the researcher [14]. This shows that how an evolved strategy could be mistaken for a detrimental disorder by examining the misalignment between evolved obsessive psychology and modernity’s demands for flexible attention, communion and collaboration, openness and complexity. Hence, it seems that OCPD, evolved in prehistory, remains adaptive in modernity and so phylogenetic inertia can only be invoked as a metaphorical heuristic. According to some scholars, OCPD is highly heritable and not ominously influenced by “common, shared-infamilies environmental factors” [15].

Truly integrating heritability estimates into a functional etiological account of obsessive character comes from an evolutionary model that understands obsessive personality to be an evolved strategy rather than a dysfunctional disorder. As a result, ‘obsessive character’ or ‘obsessive personality’ is generally substituted for ‘Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder’ because the latter is a smaller subset of the former. Accordingly, the terms ‘obsessive character’ and ‘obsessive personality’ are more inclusive, subsuming both clinical and non-clinical exhibitions of the pattern. In this regard and consistent with the results of a study, among two factors of OCPD, order/control (perfectionism, excessive devotion to work, over-conscientiousness, reluctance to delegate, and rigidity) and hoarding/indecision (inability to discard and indecisiveness), the hoarding/indecision factor is familial and shows modest linkage to a region on chromosome [16]. Then again, according to some scholars, OCPD was associated with the ‘least overall functional impairment among the personality disorders [17,18]; OCPD is the least pathological of the personality disorders and is not associated with impaired autonomy or attachment problems as are many personality disorders, such as borderline and avoidant personality [19]; OCPD is associated with fewer comorbidities than most other personality disorders [20]; OCPD is not associated with depressed global assessment of function (GAF) [21].

Perhaps most strikingly, obsessive character is predictive of worldly success [22]. Specifically, obsessive personality was found to be positively related to “high socio-economic status, good income, and supervisory responsibilities at work, spacious living conditions and home ownership” [23]; findings which are more or less in harmony with the assumptions and conclusions of the present study. Conversely, scholars like Soeteman et al. [24] had found OCPD to impose more of an overall economic encumbrance than all other personality disorders with the single exception of borderline personality. Likewise, some others like Diaconu and Turecki had found that depressed patients exhibit more non-lethal suicidal behavior when they carry a comorbid diagnosis of OCPD. While such declarations do not correspond with the aforementioned outlooks, is should be considered that Soeteman et al. [24] and Diaconu and Turecki had used samples that were quite low functioning, and which were comprised of persons combining an assortment of psychological difficulties from a variety of categories.

Rather than representing a specific personality type, these participants most often evidenced symptoms from multiple personality disorder categories, while also were carrying axis I symptoms. Such participants were drawn exclusively from clinical populations, who were receiving a combination of outpatient treatment, partial hospitalization and inpatient care. Besides, obsessional patients should be more socially conforming than the average person and less prone to risk taking [25]. Nevertheless, evolutionary psychology should be construed to include all inquiry that takes evolution into account, rather than as a subset of evolutionary perspectives which leans solely on adaptationism. While any explanation of human behavior should be grounded in biological evolution, this does not, of course, mean that environment, culture, and context are any less important to these analyses [26]. Small sample size, lack of exact operational definition and valid measure for evaluation of personal and/or social success, limitation of research to a middle-class urban area, lack of direct observation and appraisal of the offspring and relying on parent’s subjective judgment were among the weak points of this assessment. Further large practical randomized, well-designed, appraisals are necessary to evaluate the evolutionary effects of particular characters on civilization of human being.

Conclusion

Go to

Obsessive-compulsive personality traits, at a reasonable level, seem to be one of the main behavioral factors that may help the person toward attainment of personal and/or social success.

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website:
https://lupinepublishers.us/

For more Open Access Journal on Online Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgery articles Please Click Here:
https://lupinepublishers.com/neurology-brain-disorders-journal
To Know More About Open Access Publishers Please Click on Lupine Publishers

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers
Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | A Mini Review- Investigation a...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | A Mini Review- Investigation a...: Lupine Publishers | Trends in Civil Engineering and its Architecture Abstract The era of oil and gas pipelines is en...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Orthopaedics Abstract Background: Hamstring injuries frequently occur in sports involving ex...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Orthopaedics Abstract Background: Hamstring injuries frequently occur in sports involving ex...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Orthopaedics Abstract Background: Hamstring injuries frequently occur in sports involving ex...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Hamstring Injuries in Taekwond...: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Orthopaedics Abstract Background: Hamstring injuries frequently occur in sports involving ex...

Mindset Kinetics and Crime Behavior- Quantitative Methods? A New Forensic Quantitative Approach. How Biochemistry, Toxicology, Imaging Principle Can Help in Jurisdictional Settings| Lupine Publishers

Journal of Neurology & Neurosurgery-Lupine Publishers

Abstract
Go to
In some non-voluntary crime is crucial verify the amygdala and limbic system physio-pathology of human responsible of the facts under a Jurisdictional contest. But is relevant to verify this condition in really objective and instrumental way. Many other human physio-pathological condition are deeply investigated using biochemical or imaging technique: today many organ and system are currently evaluated with high number of biomedical, instrumental or imaging test also In basal or stressing condition. The objective setting of amygdala and limbic system must be added in jurisdictional procedure not as a prove but an additional information to be correctly evaluated. In this work after a literature evaluation some global conclusion are produced.

Keywords: Crime; Mindset Kinetics; Quantitative Methods; Physio-Pathology; Jurisdictional

Introduction
Go to
Often is possible to say: One second after often is too much. In many crime situation mindset kinetics of amygdala, limbic system, thalamus is a crucial aspect to be adequately considered in jurisdictional settings. This neuronal system is involved in manage of anger, impulsivity, aggressiveness, fear and other emotional response to various kind of stimulus. In article “Amygdala Hijack and the Fight or Flight Response “By Arlin Cuncic 2018: “The term “amygdala hijack” was introduced by the psychologist D. Goleman. He used the term to recognize that although we have evolved as humans, we retain an ancient structure in our brain that is designed to respond swiftly to a threat. While at one time this was designed to protect us, it can interfere with our functioning in the modern world where threats are often more subtle in nature. The amygdala is involved in the brain fear circuit, responsible for the fight-orflight response that causes to respond to threats. The amygdala is responsible for deciding what memories are stored and where they are stored. The level of emotion that is attached to a memory determines where it is stored in the CNS. When faced with a threatening situation, thalamus, which receives incoming stimuli, sends signals to the amygdala and the cortex.

If amygdala senses danger, it makes a split second decision and begins the fight-or-flight response before the cortex has time to over-rule it. This cascade of events triggers the release of adrenaline, which leads to increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. racing heart, shaking, sweating, and nausea as this happens. The amygdala triggers a sudden and intense unconscious emotional response that shuts off the cortex, making it hard for you to think clearly about the situation. The brain triggers the release of stress hormones like cortisol, you find it increasingly hard to problem solve and concentrate. This whole process takes a toll and is possible not recover to original level of functioning for several hours. Chronic stress also plays a role in the functioning of fear circuitry in the brain. People with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) show greater amygdala activation and therefore, increased emotional responding including fear and anxiety responses. Those with other anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder (SAD) and panic disorder (PD) may also respond more strongly in their amygdala.

Chronic stress can lead to an over-active fear and anxiety circuit in your brain, which also reduces the functioning of other areas of the brain that help with inhibition of fear, such as the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. chronic stress can trigger more frequent amygdala hijacks and even subsequent problems with short-term memory.” But Is possible to say that this phenomena since today is not measured or quantized in jurisdictional contest? To differ pathological from physiological individuals? In how many situation if available more time to think different actions could result? To manage different and many information’s in few seconds, or to control anger or other emotional reaction can be difficult for various subjects. (activation of the rapid circuits: thalamus – amygdala or also the slow circuits: involving also frontal cortex can make the difference). Sensorial information arrives from thalamus to amygdala and from this start motor signals. Amygdala compare also past experience with the new intense stimulus. Related this consideration is very important to ask to justice administration to introduce really objective methods to verify individuals reactivity in high stressing condition. A real measure of this condition makes possible to differ individual with normal management of mink set kinetics also in high stress ant condition from whom present an abnormal reaction.

Material and Methods
Go to
With an observational approach some relevant literature on PUBMED is analyzed to verify relationship between some crime behavior and amygdala and limbic system activation in the various individuals involved in some crime behavior. After this review is submitted to researcher a global conclusion related to the topic of this work.

Results
Go to
From literature related to the topics of this work: in article Amygdala pharmacology and crime behavior, dysfunctions to be considered as a disease.? Is reported that: “we conclude that is needed to find an objective diagnostic system to verify the basic level of activation status of amygdala in stress conditions and also to find if a drugs therapy systems can be considered if we have an organic pathology conditions. As others physiological apparatus: a pathological activation and status can be controlled by specific pharmacological therapy” [1]. And related mindset kinetics article “Scientist like M. Planck, Einstein, Bohr, De Broglie, Schrödinger, Heisenberg et others (involved in theory of quantum chemical physic field), E. Goldratt (Theory of constraints), Michaelis-Menten (a biochemistry kinetics theory), other biochemical and enzymatic reaction theory must be deeply investigated also in other fields like neuroscience and applied in order to better clear some process. The factor that can join the organic theories to the psychological approach can be an abnormal- pathological mindset kinetics process or an overuse or saturation in some Psyco- neurological process. And The single resilience ability (or single buffer properties) in biochemical receptorial status must be also objectively So a better objective way to verify the amount of stressing condition, time of exposure and quality must be introduced. (in differentiate field like Psychology, psychiatry, forensic). An useful instruments for healthcare professionals and patients. (using also a toxicological approach: what toxic condition, amount and time of exposure and under a biochemical aspect (kinetics, max velocity of a system, saturation) and not only the receptorial status. Observing biochemistry kinetics law can we think that a Zero Order Kinetics in mindset kinetics can reduce some mind-brain disorder? (Only a determinate quantum of stressing condition in a definite amount of time: really short, medium or prolonged)” [2-6].

According Uri Maoz, et al. [7]
“A defendant is criminally responsible for his action only if he is shown to have engaged in a guilty act-actus rues (e.g. for larceny, voluntarily taking someone else’s property without permission)- while possessing a guilty mind—men’s rea (e.g. knowing that he had taken someone else’s property without permission, intending not to return it)-and lacking affirmative defenses (in e.g. the insanity defense or self-defense). We first review neuroscientific studies that bear on the nature of voluntary action, and so could, potentially, tell us something of importance about the actus rues of crimes. Then we look at studies of intention, perception of risk, other mental states that matter to the men’s rea of crimes. we discuss studies of self-control, which might be relevant to some formulations of the insanity defense. As we show, to date, very little is known about the brain that is of significance for understanding criminal responsibility. But there is no reason to think that neuroscience cannot provide evidence that will challenge our understanding of criminal responsibility” [7].

Sergio Canavero [8] written
“Although the definition of criminal behavior is fraught with controversy, with single acts “criminalized” or “decriminalized” according to time and place, and as such being observed in individuals of all sorts, there seems to be an agreement across the board that the truly dangerous subjects are psycho-paths and the subjects affected by the Anti-social Personality Disorder” [8].

And Rebecca Roache [9] showed that
“L Berlin reports that neuro-scientific data play an increasing role in court. They have been used to argue that criminals are not morally responsible for their behavior because their brains are ‘faulty’, and there is evidence that such data lead judges to pass more lenient sentences. I raise 2 concerns about the view that neuroscience can show criminals not to be morally responsible: That the brains of (say) violent criminals differ from most people’s brains does not straightforwardly show that violent criminals are less morally responsible. Behavioral states arise inter alia from brain states, and since violent criminals’ behavioral states differ from those of most people, it is unsurprising that violent criminals’ brains should differ from most people’s brains. This no more shows violent criminals to have diminished moral responsibility than differences between the brains of cheerful and uncheerful people show either group to have diminished moral responsibility. Those who view brain abnormalities as evidence of reduced moral responsibility rely on the assumptions that people with normal brains have free will and that we know what sorts of brain activity undermine free will. both of these assumptions are highly controversial. As a result, neuroscience is not a reliable source of information about moral responsibility. until we settle whether and under what circumstances brain activity is incompatible with free will, neuroscience cannot tell us anything useful about criminal accountability” [9].

According Dean Mobbs, et al. [10]
“Archaeological discoveries of traumatic injuries in primitive hominid skulls strongly hint that our species has a long history of violence. Despite repeated attempts throughout history, including efforts to eliminate violence through the imposition of criminal sanctions, we have yet to dispel our violent nature. Consequently, criminal violence remains a common feature of most societies. As policy-makers seek deeper understandings of criminally violent and anti-social behavior, many contemporary neuro-scientists assume that the essential ingredients of the human condition, including free will, empathy, and morality, are the calculable consequences of an immense assembly of neurons firing. Intuitively, this view opposes Cartesian dualism (the brain and mind are separate, but interacting, entities) and assumes that violence and antisocial behavior emanate from a mechanistically determined brain” [10].

Robert K. Naumann, et al. [11] showed that
A Primer on the reptile brain, in particular the light it sheds on the structural and functional evolution of the vertebrate neural circuits. “Deep inside the skull of every one of us there is something like a brain of a crocodile. Surrounding the R-complex is the limbic system or mammalian brain, which evolved tens of millions of years ago in ancestors who were mammal but not yet primates. It is a major source of our moods and emotions, of our concern and care for the young. And finally, on the outside, living in uneasy truce with the more primitive brains beneath, is the cerebral cortex; civilization is a product of the cerebral cortex.” - Carl Sagan, Cosmos p.276–277. “C. Sagan’s amusing words of wisdom notwithstanding- is the H-bomb not also a product of the cerebral cortex? - is the reptilian brain really just a mammalian brain missing most of the parts? Some 320 million years ago, the evolution of a protective membrane surrounding the embryo, the amnion, enabled vertebrates to develop outside of water and thus to invade new terrestrial niches.

These amniotes were the ancestors of today’s mammals and sauropsids (reptiles and birds). Present-day reptiles are a diverse group of more than 10,000 species that comprise sphenodons (‘Tuatara’), lizards, snakes, turtles and crocodilians. Although turtles were once thought to be the most ‘primitive’ among reptiles, current genomic data point toward two major groupings: the Squamata (lizards and snakes); and a group comprising both the turtles and the Archosauria (dinosaurs, modern birds and crocodilians). Dinosaurs inhabited the Earth from the Triassic (230 million years ago), at a time when the entire landmass formed a single Pangaea. They flourished from the beginning of the Jurassic to the mass extinction at the end of Cretaceous (65 million years ago), and birds are their only survivors.” [11].

According Hoerst M, et al. [12]
“Emotional dysfunction in a fronto-limbic network has been implicated in the pathophysiology of borderline personality disorder (BPD). The amygdala is a key region of the limbic system and plays an important role in impulsivity, affect regulation, and emotional information processing and thus is likely related to BPD symptoms. Alterations of the metabolism in the amygdala might be of interest for understanding the pathophysiology of BPD. the amygdala is a difficult region from which to acquire magnetic resonance spectra. We implemented a method for proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H MRS) at 3.0 T in which we acquire data within only the small amygdala. The purpose of this study was to determine alterations of the metabolism in the amygdala in BPD patients.

Twenty-one unmedicated BPD patients and 20 age-matched healthy control participants underwent (1)H MRS to determine neurometabolite concentrations in the left amygdala. All participants underwent psycho-metric assessments. Significantly reduced total N-acetyl aspartate (TNAA) and total creatine (TCR) concentrations in the left amygdala of patients with BPD were founded. BPD patients with comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) showed lower levels of TCR compared with BPD patients without PTSD and healthy control subjects. No significant correlations between neurochemical concentrations and psychometric measures were founded. Decreased TNAA and TCR might indicate disturbed affect regulation and emotional information processing in the amygdala of BPD patients. These findings are consistent with many functional and structural neuro-imaging studies and may help to explain the greater emotional reactivity of BPD patients” [12].

Sakai Y, et al. [13] written
“The present work was performed to assess cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with panic disorder using positron emission tomography. F-fluoro-deoxy glucose positron emission tomography with voxel-based analysis was used to compare regional brain glucose utilization in 12 nonmedicated panic disorder patients, without their experiencing panic attacks during positron emission tomography acquisition, with that in 22 healthy controls. Panic disorder patients showed appreciably high state anxiety before scanning and exhibited significantly higher levels of glucose uptake in the bilateral amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, in midbrain, caudal pons, medulla, and cerebellum than controls. These results provided the first functional neuroimaging support in human patients for the neuroanatomical hypothesis of panic disorder focusing on the amygdala-based fear network” [13].

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website:
https://lupinepublishers.us/

For more Open Access Journal on Online Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgery articles Please Click Here:
https://lupinepublishers.com/neurology-brain-disorders-journal
To Know More About Open Access Publishers Please Click on Lupine Publishers

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers
Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Chemical Contaminants in Food ...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Chemical Contaminants in Food ...: Lupine Publishers- Environmental and Soil Science Journal Abstract Food security is a high-priority issue for sustainable glo...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers| Focusing on Food Security or Ta...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers| Focusing on Food Security or Ta...: Lupine Publishers- Environmental and Soil Science Journal Abstract Maize and cotton are two crops that are highly produced i...